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to the frequent experience of positive emotions. In our theoretical preponderance of positive emotions most of the time. One reason
framework, it is the experience of positive emotions that leads to for the tendency of happy people to feel positive emotions more
the behavioral outcomes we review, and happiness describes frequently may be that the chronically happy are relatively more
people who experience such emotions a large percentage of the sensitive to rewards in their environment that is, they have a
time (Diener, Sandvik, & Pavot, 1991). Although more inclusive more reactive behavioral approach system (Gray, 1994) and are
definitions of happiness have been offered by others (e.g., Veen- more likely to approach, rather than avoid, rewarding situations
hoven, 1984), we restrict our definition to the experience of (Watson, 1988). In addition, Larsen and colleagues demonstrated
frequent positive affect because that definition encompasses the that dispositional positive affectivity involves a susceptibility to
findings we review. experience positive moods (Larsen & Ketelaar, 1991; Rusting &
The notion that frequent positive affect is the hallmark of Larsen, 1997).
happiness has strong empirical support. Diener and his col-
leagues (1991) found that the relative proportion of time that
Characterizing and Measuring High Average Positive
people felt positive relative to negative emotions was a good
Affect
predictor of self-reports of happiness, whereas the intensity of
emotions was a weaker predictor. That is, happy people feel In short, the research evidence supports the notion that it is the
mild or moderate positive affect the majority of the time; they amount of time that people experience positive affect that defines
do not appear to experience frequent intense positive states. In happiness, not necessarily the intensity of that affect. Furthermore,
several studies and using a variety of happiness measures, happy people have been found to experience positive emotions the
Diener and his colleagues found that happy people experienced majority of the time. Thus, in this article, we identify happy individ-
positive moods and emotions most of the time (see also Diener, uals as those who experience high average levels of positive affect.
Larsen, Levine, & Emmons, 1985). Indeed, people who report These high average levels of positive affect, which we variously refer
high levels of happiness appear to have predominantly positive to as chronic happiness, trait PA, or subjective well-being, may be
affect that is, stronger positive feelings than negative ones rooted in personality predispositions (e.g., a genetically determined
80% or more of the time. For example, in a large international set point ; Lyubomirsky, Sheldon, & Schkade, 2005), the person s
sample of more than 7,000 college students in 41 diverse current life circumstances, the person s intentional activities, or all of
nations collected by Diener s laboratory, individuals who re- these. Because the existing literature does not discriminate which
ported that they were pleased with their lives expressed feelings effects of long-term PA come from which of these different sources,
of joy over half of the time. we refer in our article to individuals who show high average level of
In the World Value Survey I, which comprises probability PA, without reference to the source of this state. However, the
samples of almost 60,000 adults in 41 nations, 64% of the respon- findings from the experimental studies suggest that positive emotions
dents reported more positive than negative affect, with only 18% can produce desirable outcomes even in the absence of a very happy
reporting more negative than positive affect (World Value Survey disposition, although a happy disposition is likely to be a cause of
Group, 1994). Notably, of those reporting above-neutral happiness positive emotions.
on this survey, nearly everyone reported more positive than neg- The research we cite uses a variety of measures of long-term
ative affect, prompting Diener et al. (1991) to conclude that PA, happiness, and well-being. The vast majority of assessment of
happiness is best regarded as a state in which people feel a chronic PA is by self-report measures, which have been validated
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BENEFITS OF FREQUENT POSITIVE AFFECT
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Table 4
Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersion for Effect Sizes by Category
Mean of effect sizes Median of effect sizes
Sampling 2 test of
Category n units Unweighted Weighted Unweighted Weighted heterogeneity
Cross-sectional data
Work life 19 34,794 .27 .20 .29 .20 188.82****
Social relationships 22 120,256 .27 .15 .23 .07 3,079.60****
Health 19 17,693 .32 .32 .31 .31 67.98****
Positive 16 2,821 .39 .42 .37 .39 59.36****
perceptions of
self and others
Sociability and 26 11,773 .33 .37 .32 .40 116.20****
activity
Likeability and 15 6,930 .32 .34 .29 .21 217.64****
cooperation
Prosocial behavior 7 2,097 .32 .35 .32 .36 11.45
Physical well-being 25 5,093 .29 .31 .31 .35 197.32****
and coping
Creativity and 10 2,275 .26 .24 .27 .28 18.25*
problem solving
Longitudinal data
Work life 11 15,080 .24 .05 .25 .03 621.63****
Social relationships 8 5,106 .21 .19 .20 .20 30.43****
Health 26 37,421 .18 .09 .14 .09 418.90****
Positive 1 100 .25 N/A .25 N/A N/A
perceptions of
self and others
Sociability and 4 1,117 .25 .29 .24 .33 4.66
activity
Creativity and 2 2,872 .18 .06 .18 .04 55.67****
prosocial
behavior
Physical well-being 10 2,999 .27 .15 .29 .14 80.98****
and coping
Experimental data
Positive 13 900 .36 .34 .36 .33 19.66
perceptions of
self and others
Sociability and 6 579 .51 .49 .52 .56 16.30**
activity
Negotiation and 8 574 .33 .29 .31 .27 4.15
conflict
resolution
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